Estimating and Costing
Berms are provided in canals if these are

Fully in excavation
Partly in excavation and partly in embankment
Fully in embankment
All of these

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Estimating and Costing
The assumption on which the trapezoidal formula for volumes is based, is

The mid-area of a pyramid is half the average area of the ends
All listed here
The volume of the Prismoidal is over-estimated and hence a Prismoidal correction is applied
The end sections are parallel planes

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