Surveying
When a star is between the pole and the horizon, the relationship between latitude (λ), zenith distance (z) and declination δ, is

θ = (z + δ) - 180°
θ = δ - z
θ = 180° - (z + δ)
θ = z + δ

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Surveying
Systematic errors

Always follow some definite mathematical law
All listed here
Can be removed by applying corrections to the observed values
Are also known as cumulative errors

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Surveying
Accidental errors

Do not follow any definite mathematical law
Are generally small
Cannot be removed by applying corrections to the observed values
All of these

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Surveying
Dumpy level is most suitable when

fly levelling is being done over long distance
many readings are to be taken from a single setting of the instrument
All of these
the instrument is to be shifted frequently

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