Process Equipment and Plant Design
Seamless pipe is made

Both B and C
By extrusion & casting into static and centrifugal molds
From rolled strips formed into cylinders and seam-welded
By forging a solid round, piercing it by simultaneously rotating & forcing it over a piercer point and further reducing it by rolling gas drawing

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
A certain pressure vessel manufacturer avoids doing reinforcements calculations for openings by always providing a reinforcing pad extending upto double the diameter of the opening and of the same material and thickness as that of the shell wall. If area compensation is accepted as a code guideline, his approach leads to safe design

Irrespective of the shape of the vessel
Only if the opening is on spherical vessel
Only if the opening is on a vertical cylinderical vessel
Only if the opening is on a horizontal cylinderical vessel

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