Airport Engineering
The depressions and undulations in the pavement, are caused due to

Improper compaction of sub-grade
All listed here
Punching effect
Impact of heavy wheel loads

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Airport Engineering
Effective length of a runway is the distance between

Point of intersection of the obstruction clearance line and the extended plane of the runway surface, and the other end of the runway
Ends of the runway
Ends of the clear way on either side
Point of intersection of the glide path and the extended plane of the runway surface and the other end of the runway

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