Cell Signalling and Transduction
Nitroglycerin has long been administered to human patients suffering from chronic chest pain (angina). This medication works because it

interferes with chemical cascades that trigger contraction of heart muscle
mimics the action of signal receptors
breaks down into nitric oxide, which increases blood flow to the heart
is broken down into hormones that affect the heart

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Cell Signalling and Transduction
A signal cascade induced by adrenaline or thyroxine

All of these
must begin with receipt of the signal molecule by a surface receptor
involves the activation of a G protein
results in the activation of a sequence of enzymes needed for the cell effect

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Cell Signalling and Transduction
Two key organizing principles for large multicellular organisms are

communication between cells and simple nerve reflexes
prokaryotic cell structure and cell specialization
cell specialization and communication between cells
simple nerve reflexes and cell specialization

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Cell Signalling and Transduction
The signaling molecules called steroid hormones

bind to cell surface receptors to trigger chemical cascades
are made in one location of the body but have their effects some distance away
are hydrophilic and so cannot penetrate the plasma membrane
never enter the blood of humans

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Cell Signalling and Transduction
The binding of ligands to many G-proteins linked receptors leads to shortlived

increase in the concentration of certain extracellular signaling molecules called first messenger
increase in the concentration of certain intracellular signaling molecules called second messenger
decrease in the concentration of certain extracellular signaling molecules called first messenger
decrease in the concentration of certain intracellular signaling molecules called second messenger

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