Process Equipment and Plant Design
Liquid gradient over the tray results due to the

Low gas velocity
Resistance offered to flow of liquids by caps & risers and the flow of gas
Large reflux ratio
Large plate spacing

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
In the design of a shell and tube heat exchanger, the corrosion allowance

For carbon steel and cast iron pressure parts is 1.5 mm (except for tubes) and for severe conditions it is 3 mm
All of these
For internal cover and tube sheet is provided on both the sides
Need not be provided for non-pressure parts like tie rods, spacers, baffles, supports etc

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