Process Equipment and Plant Design
In a shell and tube heat exchanger having square pitch, the shell side equivalent diameter is given by (where, P = pitch, d = outside diameter of the tube)

4P²/πd
Πd/4P²
(P² - πd²/4)/πd
4(P² - πd²/4)/πd

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
Bubble cap tray is the most commonly used tray in large distillation column, because

Of its flexibility and nearly constant efficiency under varying conditions of operation
None of these
It eliminates the foaming and entrain-ment tendency during operation
It incurs less pressure drop as compared to any other try designed for the same duty

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