Process Equipment and Plant Design
A perforated plate has holes of diameter dh arranged in a pitch ph. Each hole has a tube of I.D. dt passing through it. The ligament efficiency is given by

(ph - dh . dt/2)/ph
(ph - dt)/ph
(ph - dh)/dh
(ph - dh)/ph

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
In a shell and tube heat exchanger, the clearance of the tube is generally

Not less than one-fourth of the tube diameter or 3/16"
Equal to the tube diameter
More than the tube diameter
More in case of triangular pitch as compared to the square pitch tube layout

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