Surveying
If the horizontal distance between the staff point and the point of observation is d, then the error due to curvature of earth is proportional to

1/d2
d
1/d
d2

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Surveying
If the lower clamp screw is tightened and upper clamp screw is loosened, the theodolite may be rotated

on its inner spindle without a relative motion between the vernier and the graduated scale of lower plate
on its outer spindle with a relative motion between the vernier and graduated scale of lower plate
on its inner spindle with a relative motion between the vernier and the graduated scale of lower plate
on its outer spindle without a relative motion between the vernier and gra-duated scale of lower plate

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Surveying
The length of a chain is measured from

inside of one handle to inside of other handle
centre of one handle to centre of other handle
outside of one handle to outside of other handle
outside of one handle to inside of other handle

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