Machine Design
A plate with an elliptical hole in the centre, with semi-major axis (a) perpendicular to the direction of loading and semi-minor axis (b) along the direction of loading, is subjected to a pull P. The maximum stress induced at the edge of the hole is equal to (where σ = Stress for a plate with no hole i.e. nominal stress)

σ [1 + (3a/b)]
σ [1 + (b/2a)]
σ [1 + (2a/b)]
σ [1 + (b/3a)]

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Machine Design
Stress concentration is caused due to

Pitting at points or areas at which loads on a member are applied
All of these
Abrupt change of section
Variation in properties of material from point to point in a member

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