Machine Design
The cracks in helical springs used in railway carriages usually start on the inner side of the coil because of the fact that

It has a lower curvature than the outer side
It is subjected to a higher stress than the outer side
It is more stretched than the outer side during the manufacturing process
It is subjected to a higher cyclic loading than the outer side

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Machine Design
Slenderness ratio is the ratio of

Effective length of column to least radius of gyration of the column
Maximum size of column to minimum size of column
Width of column to depth of column
Effective length of column to width of column

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Machine Design
In the calculation of induced shear stress in helical springs, the Wahl's stress factor is used to take care of

Combined effect of torsional shear stress and transverse shear stress in the wire
Combined effect of transverse shear stress and bending stress in the wire
Combined effect of bending stress and curvature of the wire
Combined effect of transverse shear stress and curvature of wire

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