Process Equipment and Plant Design
Liquid gradient over a tray can be minimised by

Providing a higher skirt clearance or a higher weir
All of these
Using split flow, radial flow or cascade flow for column diameter large than 4 ft
Decreasing the number of rows of caps through which the liquid flows or by decreasing the velocity of liquid flow past the caps or by reducing the distance along the tray through which the liquid must

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
Seamless pipe is made

From rolled strips formed into cylinders and seam-welded
By extrusion & casting into static and centrifugal molds
By forging a solid round, piercing it by simultaneously rotating & forcing it over a piercer point and further reducing it by rolling gas drawing
Both B and C

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