Process Equipment and Plant Design
Seamless pipe is made

By extrusion & casting into static and centrifugal molds
Both B and C
From rolled strips formed into cylinders and seam-welded
By forging a solid round, piercing it by simultaneously rotating & forcing it over a piercer point and further reducing it by rolling gas drawing

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
Overall distillation column efficiency for most of the refinery columns can be given by (for μ = 0.07 - 1.4 cp and relative volatility < 4) (where η = overall column efficiency, % μ = molal average viscosity of feed at average column temperature and pressure, cp Δp = pressure drop per tray, psi)

Η = 0.25 log μ - 1.67
Η = 1.66 - 0.25 log μ
Η = 24.6 (Δp/μ)
Η = 17 - 61.1 log μ

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
Bubble cap tray is the most commonly used tray in large distillation column, because

It incurs less pressure drop as compared to any other try designed for the same duty
It eliminates the foaming and entrain-ment tendency during operation
None of these
Of its flexibility and nearly constant efficiency under varying conditions of operation

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