Process Equipment and Plant Design
Pressure drop due to pipe fittings can be estimated by the equation, ΔP/p = 4f.Le/D.V2/2gc, where, Le = equivalent length of straight pipeline which will incur the same frictional loss as the fitting and D = diameter of the fitting. The value of Le/D (dimensionless) for 45° elbow and 180° close return bends would be respectively around

300 and 500
45 and 75
180 and 300
5 and 10

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
Seamless pipe is made

By extrusion & casting into static and centrifugal molds
Both B and C
By forging a solid round, piercing it by simultaneously rotating & forcing it over a piercer point and further reducing it by rolling gas drawing
From rolled strips formed into cylinders and seam-welded

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