Process Equipment and Plant Design
Pressure drop due to pipe fittings can be estimated by the equation, ΔP/p = 4f.Le/D.V2/2gc, where, Le = equivalent length of straight pipeline which will incur the same frictional loss as the fitting and D = diameter of the fitting. The value of Le/D (dimensionless) for 45° elbow and 180° close return bends would be respectively around

5 and 10
45 and 75
300 and 500
180 and 300

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
Mc Cable Thiele method used for finding theoretical stages in a distillation column assumes that the

Trouton's rule is applicable
Sensible heat differences are small, because the temperature changes from tray to tray is small
All of these
Liquid/vapor loading across the column remains constant

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