Surveying
If E is the spherical excess and R the radius of the earth, the surface area of the triangle, is

πR²E/180°
πR²E/90°
πR²E/360°
πR²E/270°

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Surveying
Normal tension is that pull which

makes the correction due to sag equal to zero
neutralizes the effect due to pull and sag
is used at the time of standardising the tape
makes the correction due to pull equal to zero

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