Surveying
The scale of a vertical photograph of focal length ‘f’ taken from height of ‘H’ metres above M.S.L., at a point of reduced level ‘h’, is

f/(H - h)
f/H
f/(H + h)
(H - h)/f

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Surveying
Systematic errors

All listed here
Are also known as cumulative errors
Always follow some definite mathematical law
Can be removed by applying corrections to the observed values

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