Heat and Mass Transfer
The process of heat transfer from one particle of the fluid to another by the actual movement of the fluid particles due to difference of density caused by temperature of the particle is known as

Conduction
Radiation
Forced convection
Free convection

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Heat and Mass Transfer
The time constant of a thermocouple is

The time taken to attain 50% of the value of initial temperature difference
The time taken to attain 63.2% of the value of initial temperature difference
The time taken to attain the final temperature to be measured
Determined by the time taken to reach 100°C from 0°C

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Heat and Mass Transfer
The heat transfer by conduction through a thick cylinder (Q) is given by (where T₁ = Higher temperature, T₂ = Lower temperature, r₁ = Inside radius, r₂ = Outside radius, l = Length of cylinder, and k = Thermal conductivity)

Q = [2π (T₁ - T₂)]/2.3 lk log (r₂/r₁)
Q = = 2πlk/2.3 (T₁ - T₂) log (r₂/r₁)
Q = 2.3 log (r₂/r₁)/[2πlk (T₁ - T₂)]
Q = [2πlk (T₁ - T₂)]/2.3 log (r₂/r₁)

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