Surveying
The latitude (λ) of a place and the altitude (α) of the pole are related by

λ = 180° - α
λ = 90° - α
λ = α - 90°
λ = α

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Surveying
The error due to eccentricity of inner and outer axes can be eliminated by

taking mean of several readings distributed over different portions of the graduated circle
taking both face observations and taking the mean of the two
double sighting
reading both verniers and taking the mean of the two

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