Surveying
α and β are the angles subtended by a point of elevation h at their air station with respective plumb points. Photo scale and focal length of the lens being ‘S’ and ‘f’ respectively. Parallax displacement of the point due to relief, is

h (tan α - tan β)/S
h tan α/S
h (tan α + tan β)/S
h tan β/S

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Surveying
Systematic errors

Are also known as cumulative errors
Can be removed by applying corrections to the observed values
Always follow some definite mathematical law
All listed here

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Surveying
The length of a chain is measured from

outside of one handle to inside of other handle
outside of one handle to outside of other handle
centre of one handle to centre of other handle
inside of one handle to inside of other handle

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