Internal Combustion Engines
If V₁ is the jet velocity and V₀ is the vehicle velocity, then the propulsive efficiency of a rocket is given by

V₀/(V₀ + V₁)
V₁/(V₀ + V₁)
(V₀/V₁)/ [1 + (V₀/V₁)²]
[2(V₀/V₁)]/ [1 + (V₀/V₁)²]

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Internal Combustion Engines
In a typical medium speed 4-stroke cycle diesel engines

Exhaust valve opens just after bottom dead center and closes just before top dead center
May open and close anywhere
Exhaust valve opens at bottom dead center and closes at top dead center
Exhaust valve opens at 35° before bottom dead center and closes at 20° after top dead center

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