Surveying
If θ and δ be the latitude of an observer and declination of a heavenly body respectively, the upper culmination of the body will be south of zenith if its zenith distance, is

δ - θ
θ - δ
θ + δ
½ (θ - δ)

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Surveying
For mapping any country

All listed here
Geodetic triangulation of greatest possible sides and accuracy is carried out
Primary triangles are broken down into secondary triangles of somewhat lesser accuracy
Secondary triangles are further broken into third and fourth order triangles, the points of which are used for detail surveys

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